The decimal number system, an integral part of daily life, traces its origins back to 6th-century India. Characterized by the digits zero through nine, revolutionized numerical computation and record-keeping, setting the stage for advancements in mathematics, science, and commerce. Despite its apparent simplicity and utility to the contemporary observer, the widespread adoption of this system across the globe was a gradual process that spanned over a millennium.
The genesis of the modern digits can be linked to the Brahmi numerals from the 3rd century, with the concept of zero emerging concurrently as a placeholder within the Babylonian base-60 counting system. This incorporation of zero into the Hindu-Arabic numerals was a significant leap forward, enabling a positional numeral system akin to the one in use today. Unlike the Roman numerals used in the Western world, which complicated written calculations and hindered efficient computation, the Hindu-Arabic system offered a streamlined approach by introducing a zero and limiting the numerals to nine, with each position signifying an increasing power of ten.
The spread of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system was propelled by the Islamic conquests of the 7th century, eventually being known as the Hindu-Arabic number system. However, its adoption in Europe faced considerable resistance, with Roman numerals predominating until the 12th century. The turning point came with Leonardo of Pisa, better known as Fibonacci, who, through his travels in Arab lands, was exposed to this efficient numeral system. His seminal work, Liber Abaci in 1202, introduced the Hindu-Arabic number system to Europe, but also demonstrated its practical application in commerce, thereby catalyzing a shift in European mathematical practices and commercial operations.
The transition from Roman to Hindu-Arabic numerals in Europe was marked by a protracted debate between the algorists, who advocated for the Hindu-Arabic system, and the abacists, who favored the traditional Roman numerals and counting boards. The dispute eventually subsided in the 16th century, leading to the relegation of Roman numerals to specific contexts and the ascendance of the Hindu-Arabic system as the preeminent numerical standard.