One of the earliest documented uses of rockets was in China. Father Antoine Gaubil, a French Jesuit missionary and historian, described an event in his 1739 writings, “When it was lit, it made a noise that resembled thunder and extended 24 km. The place where it fell was burned, and the fire extended more than 2000 feet. These iron nozzles, the flying powder halberds that were hurled, were what the Mongols feared most.” This account details how, in 1232, the Chinese successfully defended the city of Kaifeng against a massive Mongol invasion using rocket-propelled fire arrows.
The Chinese are credited with the invention of black powder, a mixture of charcoal, sulfur, and saltpeter (potassium nitrate), in 9th century during the Tang dynasty. Initially used for medicinal purposes and fireworks, black powder’s potential as a propellant was realized. By the Song dynasty, the Chinese developed rudimentary rockets by attaching bamboo tubes filled with black powder to arrows, creating the so-called “fire arrows.” These fire arrows were psychological weapons and had destructive capabilities. During the Mongol invasions, the Chinese employed a variety of gunpowder weapons, including rockets, bombs, and flamethrowers, to defend their territories. These early rockets started to include aerodynamic design features to increase range.
Gunpowder and rocketry gradually spread westward through the Silk Road and during Mongol invasions. By the 13th and 14th centuries, the use of gunpowder weapons had reached the Middle East and Europe. The adaptation and advancement of these technologies in Europe were slow due to limited understanding and secrecy surrounding its composition. It was not until the 16th century that rocketry saw more systematic development in Europe, primarily for fireworks and signaling rather than as weapons. For example, the beginning of using gas lamps in Paris by the court was marked by fireworks, creating the saying ‘city of light.’
Sir William Congreve of England was inspired by the rockets used by the Kingdom of Mysore in India against British forces. Sir William sought to develop his own versions for the British military. Congreve designed rockets with improved propulsion and stability, using iron casings and sticks to help guide the rocket on its flight-path. His rockets were utilized during the Napoleonic Wars and notably in the War of 1812. The ‘rocket’s red glare'”‘ referenced by Francis Scott Key in The Star-Spangled Banner alludes to the Sir William’s rockets fired by British ships during the bombardment of Fort McHenry in 1814.
Rockets remained largely empirical devices until the late 19th and early 20th centuries when scientific principles were systematically applied by early aerospace engineers such as Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (Russian), Robert H. Goddard (American), and Hermann Oberth (German).
References
- Gaubil, A. (1739). Histoire de Gentchiscan et de toute la Dinastie des Mongous ses successeurs conquérans de la chine: tirée de l’histoire chinoise. Chez Briasson, libraire… et Piget, libraire.
- Needham, J. (1974). Science and civilisation in China (Vol. 5). Cambridge University Press.
- Kelly, J. (2004). Gunpowder: alchemy, bombards, and pyrotechnics: the history of the explosive that changed the world. Basic Books (AZ).
- Temple, R. (1986). The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention. Simon & Schuster.
- Partington, J. R. (1999). A history of Greek fire and gunpowder. JHU Press.
- Congreve, W. (1817). A Concise Account of the Origin and Progress of the Rocket System: With a View of the Apparent Advantages Both as to the Effect Produced, and Comparative Saving of Expense Arising from the Peculiar Facilities of Application which it Possesses, as Well for Naval as Military Purposes. A. O’Neil.
- Tsiolkovsky, K. S. (1903). Exploration of outer space by means of rocket devices. The Science Review, 5.
- Goddard, R. H. (1919). A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes, volume 71 (2) of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Smithsonian institution, City of Washington.
- Oberth, H. (1984). Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen. Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag.