I have completed reading the Analects of Confucius (Kong Qiu 孔丘, Zhongni 仲尼, Kongzi 孔子, Kong Fuzi 孔夫子) – English translation and commentary by an amazing scholar Annping Chin (2014).
Analects means a collection of selected sayings or short passages, especially sayings attributed to an important person. The original Chinese title is Lúnyǔ (論語), usually understood as something like “discussed sayings,” “conversations,” or “edited conversations.”
What interested me most in the Analects was Confucius’ treatment of learning as a form of self-cultivation. Learning is a continuing process of correcting mistakes, testing judgment, and changing oneself through what has been understood (see 1.14, 2.4, 7.3, 7.8 below). Learning like building a mountain one basket at a time captures this well (9.19). Progress depends upon continuous effort, while completion is always beyond reach – one should “learn as if you will never catch up” (8.17).
Closely connected to learning is humility. Confucius repeatedly distrusts certainty, reputation, wealth, display, and moral accomplishment (1.16, 7.16, 9.4). He does not call himself a sage or a “humane” (a key concept throughout the text) man, but describes himself as someone who continues to work toward these things without becoming satisfied (7.34). He worries instead about whether he practices what he already knows and whether he can recognize and correct his own errors (5.27, 7.3). Integrity exists independently of recognition. A person may speak well without possessing integrity, possess courage without being humane (14.4), or be widely admired without actually deserving admiration (13.24).
Service to government can be honorable in one circumstance and shameful in another (14.1). Withdrawal from society may preserve integrity, but withdrawal itself is not necessarily virtuous. In his encounter with Chang Ju and Jie Ni, Confucius refuses complete separation from human society, asking, “Whom can I be with if not with other human beings?” (18.6). His discussion of the recluses makes the point more explicitly: after describing several different forms of principled withdrawal, he concludes, “I have no preconceptions about what one can or cannot do” (18.8). Circumstances matter, and cultivated judgment is required to distinguish appearance from substance (13.24, 14.4, 20.3).
This is the thread I saw in myself through my chosen passages – Confucius presents moral development as continuous work carried out among people. One learns, observes, makes mistakes, corrects them, helps others, and tries again (4.15, 6.30, 7.3, 9.19). Humaneness goes beyond internal condition, and a person who wishes to steady himself helps others to steady themselves. One who wishes to reach their own goal helps others reach theirs (6.30). One should not seek certainty or perfection, but alignment between knowledge, conduct, and character.
Reference – Confucius, The Analects: Lunyu, translated by Annping Chin. New York, New York, United States of America: Penguin Books, 2014. ISBN: 978-0-698-15351-6.
The following are quotations of Confucius that I referenced above, and additionally, those that caught my attention.
1.14 The Master said, “A gentleman does not try to stuff himself when he eats and is not worried about the comfort of his dwelling. He is anxious about getting things done and careful about what he says. He gravitates toward those who possess moral integrity because he wants to put himself right. One could say that he is someone who loves learning.”
1.16 The Master said, “Do not worry that other people do not know you. But be concerned that you do not know them.”
2.4 The Master said, “At fifteen, I set my heart on learning. At thirty, I found my balance through the rites. At forty, I was free from doubts [about myself]. At fifty, I understood what Heaven intended me to do. At sixty, I was attuned to what I heard. At seventy, I followed what my heart desired without overstepping the line.”
3.24 A border official from the district of Yi asked to have an interview with Confucius, saying, “I have never been denied an interview with a gentleman who has come to this place.” Followers of Confucius arranged a meeting for him, and when he came out, he said, “Why should you worry about [your teacher] not having an official position? The world has been without the Way for a long time now. Heaven is about to use your master as the wooden tongue of a bronze bell. ”
4.15 The Master said, “Can [Zeng Can], my way has a thread running through it.” Master Zeng replied, “Yes.”
After the Master left, the disciples asked, “What did he mean?”
Master Zeng said, “The Master’s way consists of doing one’s best to fulfill one’s humanity and treating others with an awareness that they, too, are alive with humanity.”
5.12 Zigong said, “I do not wish others to impose what is unreasonable on me, and I also do not wish to impose what is unreasonable on others. ”
The Master said, “Si [Zigong], this is not something that is within your power.”
5.26 Yan Yuan [Yan Hui] and Jilu [Zilu] were in attendance. Confucius said, “Why don’t you each tell me what you would like to see yourself accomplish?”
Zilu said, “I would like to share my carriages and horses, my clothes and furs with my friends, and, even if these things became worn, to have no regrets.”
Yan Yuan said, “I would like never to boast of any good points I might have and never to claim credit for work I might have done for others.”
Zilu said, “We would like to hear what you would like to see yourself accomplish.”
The Master said, “To give comfort to the old, to have the trust of my friends, and to have the young seeking to be near me.”
5.27 Confucius said, “It’s hopeless! I have yet to see anyone who could recognize his mistakes and take himself to task privately.”
6.24 The Master said, “With one great change the state of Qi could resemble the state of Lu. With one great change, Lu could embody the moral way. ”
6.27 The Master said, “The gentleman broadens his learning in literature and holds himself back with the practice of the rites. And so he is able not to go beyond the bounds of the moral way.”
6.30 Zigong said, “If there is someone who is generous to his people and works to give relief to all those in need, what do you think of him? Can he be called humane?”
The Master said, “This is no longer a matter of humaneness. You must be referring to a sage. Even Yao and Shun found it difficult to accomplish what you’ve just described. A humane person wishes to steady himself, and so he helps others to steady themselves. Because he wishes to reach his goal, he helps others to reach theirs. The ability to make an analogy from what is close at hand is the method and the way of realizing humaneness.”
7.3 The Master said, “To fail to cultivate virtue, to fail to practice what I have learned, not to direct my steps toward what is right when I know what that is, and to make mistakes and not be able to correct them – these are the things that worry me.”
7.8 The Master said, “I will not give a person a boost or a start if he does not know the frustration [of trying to solve a difficult problem] or the frenzy one would get into when trying [to put an idea] into words. After I have shown a student one corner of a square, if he does not come back with the other three, I will not repeat what I have done.”
7.9 When the Master was eating at the side of someone who was in mourning, he never ate his fill. On a day when the Master had wept, he never sang.
7.16 The Master said, “Eating coarse grain, drinking water, and a bended arm for a pillow – joy could be found in these things, too. Wealth and power unrightfully gained mean as much to me as drifting clouds.”
7.19 The Governor of She asked Zilu about Confucius, and Zilu gave no answer. The Master later said to Zilu, “Why didn’t you simply say that he is the sort of person who forgets to eat when pursuing a question, who forgets to worry when suffused with joy, and who does not note that old age is coming?”
7.24 The Master said, “My young friends, do you think I am hiding something? I am not hiding anything from you. There is nothing I do that I do not share with you. That’s Qiu for you.”
7.26 The Master said, “Since I have no hope of meeting a sage, it would be enough if I could meet a gentleman. ”
The Master said, “Since I have no hope of meeting a truly good man, it would be enough to meet a person of constancy. As for those who
claim to have something when they have nothing, to be full when they are empty, to be comfortable when they are tight, it is hard to expect them to be constant.”
7.34 The Master said, “I dare not call myself a sage or a humane man. What could be said of me is that I work toward it without ever feeling sated and I am never tired of teaching.”
Gongxi Hua remarked, “It is precisely in this that we, your disciples, are unable to emulate you.”
7.36 The Master said, “Being extravagant often means that you lack humility. Being frugal often means that you are shabby. I would rather be shabby than lacking in humility. ”
8.10 The Master said, “If the people love bravery and at the same time are angry about their poverty, this is a formula for chaos. If the people are infuriated with men who are inhumane, this, too, will lead to chaos.”
8.13 The Master said, “Have unshakable trust in [the moral path you pursue]. Love learning. Hold on to the way of the good until you die. Do not enter a state threatened with danger. Do not reside in a state embroiled in conflict. Show yourself when the moral way is evident. Seek reclusion when it is not. When the moral way prevails in a state, being poor and lowly is a cause for shame. When the moral way does not prevail in the world, having wealth and position is a cause for shame.”
8.17 The Master said, “Learn as if you will never catch up, as though you are afraid of losing whatever you have already understood.”
9.2 A villager from Daxiang said, “How great is Confucius! He is vastly learned, and so has not made a name for himself in any particular area.”
The Master, having heard this, said to his disciples, “What should I specialize in? Charioteering? Or archery? I think I will specialize in charioteering. ”
9.4 The Master stayed away from four things: he did not put forth theories or conjectures; he did not think that he must be right; he was not obdurate; he was not self-centered.
Yan Hui said with a deep sigh, “The more I look up at it, the higher it appears. The more I bore into it, the harder it becomes. I see it before me, yet suddenly it is behind me. But my teacher knows how to coax me to move forward, and he does it a step at a time. He expands me with literature and culture and pulls me in with the rites. I cannot stop even if I want to, but having done all I can, it still seems to stand way above me. I don’t know where to start, however much I wish to pursue it.”
9.19 The Master said, “I could use the example of building a mountain. If with just one more basketful of dirt to go I stopped, then I was the one who stopped [and left the work incomplete]. I could also use the example of leveling ground. If I heaped just one basketful of dirt, then progress was made and I was the one who moved the work forward.”
9.28 The Master said, “Only in the deepest winter do we realize that the pine and cypress are the last to shed their leaves.”
11.4 The Master said, “Hui [Yan Hui] is of no help to me. He is pleased with everything I say.”
11.12 Jilu [Zilu] asked about how to serve the spirits of the dead and the gods. The Master said, “You can’t even serve men properly, how can you serve the spirits?”
“May I then ask about death?”
“You can’t even understand life, how can you understand death?”
11.23 When Confucius found his life under threat in Kuang, Yan Hui fell behind. [Later, when they reunited,] Confucius said, “I thought you were dead. ”
Yan Hui replied, “With you, Master, still alive, how would I dare to die?”
12.8 Ji Zicheng said, “What matters about a gentleman is the stuff he is made of. What need is there for cultural refinement?”
Zigong said, “I am sorry to hear what you have just said about the gentleman. Even a team of horses cannot catch up with [misspoken words] from a tongue. The stuff of a gentleman is not different from his refinement, and his refinement is not different from the stuff he is made of. The skin of a tiger or a leopard, shorn of hair, is not different from the skin of dog or a sheep. ”
12.9 Duke Ai said to You Ruo, “This is a lean year. I don’t have enough to keep things going. What should I do?”
You Ruo replied, “Why not apply the [Zhou] system of che, under which the people were taxed one part in ten?”
“If I don’t seem to have enough if I tax them two parts in ten, how will I manage if I tax them one part in ten?”
You Ruo replied, “If the people have enough, how can their ruler be left without enough? When the people do not have enough, how can their ruler hope to have enough?”
12.19 Ji Kangzi asked Confucius about the way of governing, saying, “In order to realize the moral way, how about if I were to kill those who do not live by it?”
Confucius replied, “As head of the government, why would you need to kill anyone [to bring about moral order]? The character of those at the top is like that of the wind. The character of those below is like that of grass. When wind blows over the grass, the grass is sure to bend.”
13.22 The Master said, “People from the south have a saying, “A man lacking constancy will not make a shaman or a doctor.” Well put, is it not? The Book of Changes says, ‘The person who lacks constancy in upholding his virtue will be met with disgrace.’ The Master said, “It means that there is simply no point for him to have his fortune told.”
13.24 Zigong asked, “What would you think of a person if everyone in the village liked him?”
The Master said, “I still would not be able to tell [one way or another about him]. ”
“What would you think of a person if everyone in the village disliked him?”
“I still would not be able to tell [one way or another about him]. Better if the good people in his village liked him and the bad ones disliked him.”
14.1 Xian [Yuan Si] asked what conduct could be considered shameful.
The Master said, “When the state is governed according to the moral way, one would accept a salary. When the state is not governed according to the moral way, it would be shameful to accept a salary.”
“[If a person] does not insist on winning and is not boastful, begrudging, or covetous, can such conduct be called humane?”
The Master said, “One can call that difficult, but I don’t know whether it measures up to being humane.”
14.4 The Master said, “A person who has integrity is sure to have something to say, but a person who has something to say does not necessarily have integrity. A person who is humane is sure to possess courage, but a person who possesses courage is not necessarily humane.”
18.1 The Viscount of Wei left him. The Viscount of Ji became his slave. Bi Gan remonstrated with him and, because of it, was put to death. Confucius said, “The Shang had these three humane men.”
The Han scholar Xu Gan writes:
In the Yin [Shang] dynasty there were three men who realized humaneness. The virtue of the viscount of Wei was firmer than rock and he acted promptly. Although confronted by adversity, the viscount of Ji was able to keep his aims squarely on course. Bi Gan remonstrated and had his heart cut out. The gentleman [Confucius] considered the viscount of Wei’s behavior as most exemplary, followed by that of the viscount of Ji, and Bi Gan’s being the least so. Hence in the Spring and Autumn Annals, all those counselors who were killed for remonstrating with their rulers are criticized for not using their wisdom to escape death.
18.6 Chang Ju and Jie Ni were yoked together as they plowed the field. [Confucius went past them.] He then sent Zilu to find out where the ford might be.
Chang Ju asked, “Who is that man driving the carriage?”
Zilu replied, “It’s Kong Qiu [Confucius].”
“Is it Kong Qiu of Lu?”
“Yes.’
“Then he knows where the ford is.”
Zilu then tried [the other man,] Jie Ni.
Jie Ni asked, “Who are you?”
“Zhong You [Zilu]. ”
“Then you must be a disciple of Kong Qiu of Lu.”
“I am.”
“[Look at the water,] it keeps on moving forward. Everywhere in the world is the same. So why bother to seek another [ruler] when you have given up this one? Why change? Moreover, why do you want to follow someone who keeps running away from men [who turned out to be the wrong ones to serve]? Why not follow those who have run away from the world altogether?” He then went back to planting his seeds, burying them one by one without stopping.
Zilu went to tell Confucius what these two men had said. Confucius seemed lost in thought for a while. Then he spoke: “We cannot flock with birds and beasts, can we? Whom can I be with if not with other human beings? The world has a moral way, so I will not change places with those two.”
18.8 Men of integrity who relinquished their rightful positions and became recluses include Bo Yi, Shu Qi, Yu Zhong, Yi Yi, Zhu Zhang, Liuxia Hui, and Shao Lian. The Master said, “Unwilling to lower their aim and bring disgrace upon themselves – that would be Bo Yi and Shu Qi. Liuxia Hui and Shao Lian were willing to lower their aim and bring disgrace upon themselves, but their words were morally sound and their conduct never wandered from their thought – this much is true. Yu Zhong and Yi Yi lived in reclusion and said whatever they liked; they were immaculate in character, and in giving up the world they acted with expediency. But I am different from all these men. I have no preconceptions about what one can or cannot do.”
20.3 The Master said, “A person will have no way to become a gentleman if he does not understand destiny. He will have no way to find his balance if he does not know the rites. He will have no way to assess people’s character if he does not have insight into words.”
Reference – Confucius, The Analects: Lunyu, translated by Annping Chin. New York, New York, United States of America: Penguin Books, 2014. International Standard Book Number 978-0-698-15351-6.